MNM
Evidence

The full reference library

275 curated references across foundational physiology, consensus statements, pediatric-specific data, and recent literature. Every <Cite> chip across the site links back here.

Bibliography version 2026-06-05
Evidence-grade legend
AMultiple RCTs / strong pediatric systematic reviewsBSingle RCT or strong adult + pediatric replicationCObservational / case seriesExpertConsensus / expert opinionSparsePediatric data essentially absent
Category
Grade

Showing 275 of 275 references

Foundational (98)

  1. [cho2024_ecmo_outcomes]BPisano DV et al. (2024). Short-Term Neurologic Complications in Patients Undergoing Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Support: A Review on Pathophysiology, Incidence, Risk Factors, and Outcomes. Pulmonary Therapy. doi:10.1007/s41030-024-00265-z
  2. [hartings2020]CHartings JA et al. (2020). Prognostic value of spreading depolarizations in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Neurology;77(4):489–499. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.4476
  3. [andresen2014nirs]CAndresen B et al. (2020). Comparison of INVOS 5100C and Nonin SenSmart X-100 oximeter performance in preterm infants with spontaneous apnea. Pediatric Research;87(7):1244-1250. doi:10.1038/s41390-020-0752-6
  4. [hartings2017cosbid]BHartings JA et al. (2017). The continuum of spreading depolarizations in acute cortical lesion development: examining Leão's legacy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab;37(5):1571–1594. doi:10.1177/0271678X16654495
  5. [donnelly2017mapopt]BDonnelly J et al. (2017). Individualizing thresholds of cerebral perfusion pressure using estimated limits of autoregulation. Critical Care Medicine;45(9):1464-1471. doi:10.1097/ccm.0000000000002575
  6. [hartings2020_sd_natural_history]BHartings JA et al. (2017). Subarachnoid blood acutely induces spreading depolarizations and early cortical infarction. Brain;143(11):3373-3389. doi:10.1093/brain/awx214
  7. [olson2016]Olson DM et al. (2016). Interrater reliability of pupillary assessments. Neurocritical Care;24(2):251–257. doi:10.1007/s12028-015-0182-1
  8. [lorusso2017]Lorusso R et al. (2016). In-hospital neurologic complications in adult patients undergoing venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: results from the ELSO Registry. Critical Care Medicine;44(10):e964–e972. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000001865
  9. [howells2017rap]CHowells T et al. (2015). An optimal frequency range for assessing the pressure reactivity index in patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing;29(1):97–105. doi:10.1007/s10877-014-9573-7
  10. [guiza2015b_dose]BGuiza F et al. (2015). Visualizing the pressure and time burden of intracranial hypertension in adult and paediatric traumatic brain injury. Intensive Care Medicine;41(6):1067-1076. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-3806-1
  11. [depreitere2014icpdose]BDepreitere B et al. (2014). Pressure autoregulation monitoring and cerebral perfusion pressure target recommendation in patients with severe traumatic brain injury based on minute-by-minute monitoring data. Journal of Neurosurgery;120(6):1451-1457. doi:10.3171/2014.3.JNS131500
  12. [varsos2013ccp]BVarsos GV et al. (2013). Critical closing pressure determined with a model of cerebrovascular impedance. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism;33(2):235-243. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.161
  13. [wedatilake2013_leigh]CWedatilake Y et al. (2013). SURF1 deficiency: a multi-centre natural history study. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases;8:96. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-8-96
  14. [sorrentino2012]Sorrentino E et al. (2012). Critical thresholds for cerebrovascular reactivity after traumatic brain injury. Neurocritical Care;16(2):258–266. doi:10.1007/s12028-011-9630-8
  15. [deriva2012_pi]Bde Riva N et al. (2012). Transcranial Doppler Pulsatility Index: What it is and What it Isn't. Neurocritical Care;17(1):58-66. doi:10.1007/s12028-012-9672-6
  16. [aries2012cppopt]BAries MJ et al. (2012). Continuous determination of optimal cerebral perfusion pressure in traumatic brain injury. Critical Care Medicine;40(8):2456-2463. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182514eb6
  17. [chen2011]Chen JW et al. (2011). Pupillary reactivity as an early indicator of increased intracranial pressure: The introduction of the neurological pupil index. Surgical Neurology International;2:82. doi:10.4103/2152-7806.82248
  18. [bohman2014]Bohman LE et al. (2011). Medical management of compromised brain oxygen in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Neurocritical Care;14(3):361–369. doi:10.1007/s12028-011-9526-7
  19. [dreier2009]Dreier JP (2011). The role of spreading depression, spreading depolarization and spreading ischemia in neurological disease. Nature Medicine;17(4):439–447. doi:10.1038/nm.2333
  20. [cottenceau2011]Cottenceau V et al. (2011). Comparison of effects of equiosmolar doses of mannitol and hypertonic saline on cerebral blood flow and metabolism in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma;28(10):2003–2012. doi:10.1089/neu.2011.1929
  21. [tazarourte2011_tcd]CTazarourte K et al. (2011). Pre-hospital transcranial Doppler in severe traumatic brain injury: a pilot study. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica;55(4):422-428. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2010.02372.x
  22. [brady2010]Brady KM et al. (2010). Real-time continuous monitoring of cerebral blood flow autoregulation using near-infrared spectroscopy in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. Stroke;41(9):1951–1956. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.575159
  23. [brady2009piglet]CBrady KM et al. (2010). Noninvasive autoregulation monitoring with and without intracranial pressure in the naive piglet brain. Anesthesia & Analgesia;111(1):191–195. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181e054ba
  24. [kurth2009]Kurth CD et al. (2009). Cerebral oxygen saturation-time threshold for hypoxic-ischemic injury in piglets. Anesthesia & Analgesia;108(4):1268–1277. doi:10.1213/ane.0b013e318196ac8e
  25. [kim2009rap]CKim DJ et al. (2009). Index of cerebrospinal compensatory reserve in hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery;64(3):494–501. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000338434.59141.89
  26. [lee2009ndnirs]BLee JK et al. (2009). Cerebrovascular reactivity measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. Stroke;40(5):1820-1826. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.536094
  27. [hellstrom2008]Hellström-Westas L et al. (2008). Atlas of Amplitude-Integrated EEGs in the Newborn. Informa Healthcare. doi:10.3109/9781439813898
  28. [rosenthal2008]Rosenthal G et al. (2008). Brain tissue oxygen tension is more indicative of oxygen diffusion than oxygen delivery and metabolism in patients with traumatic brain injury. Critical Care Medicine;36(6):1917–1924. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181743d77
  29. [geeraerts2008]Geeraerts T et al. (2008). Use of T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of the optic nerve sheath to detect raised intracranial pressure. Critical Care;12(5):R114. doi:10.1186/cc7006
  30. [brady2007piglet]BBrady KM et al. (2008). Continuous Measurement of Autoregulation by Spontaneous Fluctuations in Cerebral Perfusion Pressure. Stroke;38(11):2818–2825. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.514877
  31. [meert2015_palliative_care]ExpertMeert KL et al. (2008). Parents' perspectives on physician-parent communication near the time of a child's death in the pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;9(1):2-7. doi:10.1097/01.PCC.0000298644.13882.88
  32. [brady2007]Brady KM et al. (2007). Continuous time-domain analysis of cerebrovascular autoregulation using near-infrared spectroscopy. Stroke;38(10):2818–2825. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.107.485706
  33. [hellstromwestas2006]AHellström-Westas L et al. (2006). Amplitude-integrated EEG: classification and interpretation in preterm and term infants. NeoReviews;7(2):e76–e87. doi:10.1542/neo.7-2-e76
  34. [jaeger2006orx]CJaeger M et al. (2006). Continuous assessment of cerebrovascular autoregulation after traumatic brain injury using brain tissue oxygen pressure reactivity. Critical Care Medicine;34(6):1783–1788. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000218413.51546.9E
  35. [stiefel2005]CStiefel MF et al. (2005). Reduced mortality rate in patients with severe traumatic brain injury treated with brain tissue oxygen monitoring. Journal of Neurosurgery;103(5):805–811. doi:10.3171/jns.2005.103.5.0805
  36. [engstrom2005]Engström M et al. (2005). Intracerebral microdialysis in severe brain trauma: the importance of catheter location. Journal of Neurosurgery;102(3):460–469. doi:10.3171/jns.2005.102.3.0460
  37. [wijdicks2005]Wijdicks EFM et al. (2005). Validation of a new coma scale: the FOUR score. Annals of Neurology;58(4):585–593. doi:10.1002/ana.20611
  38. [caricato2005]Caricato A et al. (2005). Effects of PEEP on the intracranial system of patients with head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage: the role of respiratory system compliance. Journal of Trauma;58(3):571–576. doi:10.1097/01.ta.0000152806.19198.db
  39. [smielewski2018icmplus]ExpertSmielewski P et al. (2005). ICM+: software for on-line analysis of bedside monitoring data after severe head trauma. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplement;95:43-49. doi:10.1007/3-211-32318-x_10
  40. [claassen2004]Claassen J et al. (2004). Detection of electrographic seizures with continuous EEG monitoring in critically ill patients. Neurology;62(10):1743–1748. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000125184.88797.62
  41. [claassen2004qeeg]Claassen J et al. (2004). Quantitative continuous EEG for detecting delayed cerebral ischemia in patients with poor-grade subarachnoid hemorrhage. Clinical Neurophysiology;115(12):2699–2710. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2004.06.017
  42. [bellner2004]Bellner J et al. (2004). Transcranial Doppler sonography pulsatility index (PI) reflects intracranial pressure (ICP). Surgical Neurology;62(1):45–51. doi:10.1016/j.surneu.2003.12.007
  43. [robinson2003]Robinson LR et al. (2003). Predictive value of somatosensory evoked potentials for awakening from coma. Critical Care Medicine;31(3):960–967. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000053643.21751.3B
  44. [logi2003]Logi F et al. (2003). The prognostic value of evoked responses from primary somatosensory and auditory cortex in comatose patients. Clinical Neurophysiology;114(9):1615–1627. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00086-5
  45. [steiner2002]BSteiner LA et al. (2002). Continuous monitoring of cerebrovascular pressure reactivity allows determination of optimal cerebral perfusion pressure in patients with traumatic brain injury. Critical Care Medicine;30(4):733–738. doi:10.1097/00003246-200204000-00002
  46. [vespa2010]Vespa PM et al. (2002). Early and persistent impaired percent alpha variability on continuous EEG monitoring as predictive of poor outcome after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurosurgery;97(1):84–92. doi:10.3171/jns.2002.97.1.0084
  47. [drover2002]Drover DR et al. (2002). Patient State Index. Anesthesiology;97(1):82–89. doi:10.1097/00000542-200207000-00012
  48. [soukup2002]Soukup J et al. (2002). The importance of brain temperature in patients after severe head injury: relationship to intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, cerebral blood flow, and outcome. Journal of Neurotrauma;19(5):559–571. doi:10.1089/089771502753754046
  49. [strong2002]CStrong AJ et al. (2002). Spreading and synchronous depressions of cortical activity in acutely injured human brain. Stroke;33(12):2738–2743. doi:10.1161/01.str.0000043073.69602.09
  50. [lang2003poss]CLang EW et al. (2002). Continuous monitoring of cerebrovascular autoregulation: a validation study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry;74(8):1053-1059. doi:10.1136/jnnp.72.5.583
  51. [vajkoczy2000tdf]CVajkoczy P et al. (2000). Continuous monitoring of regional cerebral blood flow: experimental and clinical validation of a novel thermal diffusion microprobe. J Neurosurg;93(2):265–274. doi:10.3171/jns.2000.93.2.0265
  52. [czosnyka1999]Czosnyka M et al. (1999). Hemodynamic characterization of intracranial pressure plateau waves in head-injury patients. Journal of Neurosurgery;91(1):11–19. doi:10.3171/jns.1999.91.1.0011
  53. [toet1999]AToet MC et al. (1999). Amplitude integrated EEG 3 and 6 hours after birth in full term neonates with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed;81(1):F19–F23. doi:10.1136/fn.81.1.f19
  54. [schmidt1997nicp]CSchmidt B et al. (1999). Cerebral vasodilatation causing acute intracranial hypertension: a method for noninvasive assessment. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab;19(9):990–996. doi:10.1097/00004647-199909000-00006
  55. [rampil1998]Rampil IJ (1998). A primer for EEG signal processing in anesthesia. Anesthesiology;89(4):980–1002. doi:10.1097/00000542-199810000-00023
  56. [henker1998]Henker RA et al. (1998). Comparison of brain temperature with bladder and rectal temperatures in adults with severe head injury. Neurosurgery;42(5):1071–1075. doi:10.1097/00006123-199805000-00071
  57. [czosnyka1997prx]BCzosnyka M et al. (1997). Continuous assessment of the cerebral vasomotor reactivity in head injury. Neurosurgery;41(1):11–17. doi:10.1097/00006123-199707000-00005
  58. [vespa1997sah]CVespa PM et al. (1997). Early detection of vasospasm after acute subarachnoid hemorrhage using continuous EEG ICU monitoring. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. doi:10.1016/S0013-4694(97)00071-0
  59. [czosnyka1996rap]Czosnyka M et al. (1996). Significance of intracranial pressure waveform analysis after head injury. Acta Neurochirurgica;138(5):531–541. doi:10.1007/BF01411173
  60. [czosnyka1996mx]BCzosnyka M et al. (1996). Monitoring of cerebral autoregulation in head-injured patients. Stroke;27(10):1829–1834. doi:10.1161/01.str.27.10.1829
  61. [hansen1997]Hansen H-C et al. (1996). The subarachnoid space surrounding the optic nerves. An ultrasound study of the optic nerve sheath. Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy;18(4):323–328. doi:10.1007/BF01627611
  62. [helmke1996]Helmke K et al. (1996). Fundamentals of transorbital sonographic evaluation of optic nerve sheath expansion under intracranial hypertension. I. Experimental study. Pediatric Radiology;26(10):701–705. doi:10.1007/BF01383384
  63. [kirkpatrick1995]Kirkpatrick PJ et al. (1995). Near-infrared spectroscopy use in patients with head injury. Journal of Neurosurgery;83(6):963–970. doi:10.3171/jns.1995.83.6.0963
  64. [sigl1994bis]BSigl JC et al. (1994). An introduction to bispectral analysis for the electroencephalogram. J Clin Monit;10(6):392–404. doi:10.1007/bf01618421
  65. [gopinath1994sjvo2]CGopinath SP et al. (1994). Jugular venous desaturation and outcome after head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry;57(6):717–723. doi:10.1136/jnnp.57.6.717
  66. [kirkpatrick1994ldf]CKirkpatrick PJ et al. (1994). Continuous monitoring of cortical perfusion by laser Doppler flowmetry in ventilated patients with head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry;57(11):1382–1388. doi:10.1136/jnnp.57.11.1382
  67. [hossmann1994thresholds]BHossmann KA (1994). Viability thresholds and the penumbra of focal ischemia. Annals of Neurology;36(4):557-565. doi:10.1002/ana.410360404
  68. [larson1997]Larson MD et al. (1993). Pupillary response to noxious stimulation during isoflurane and propofol anesthesia. Anesthesia & Analgesia;76(5):1072–1078. doi:10.1213/00000539-199305000-00028
  69. [maas1993pbto2]BMaas AI et al. (1993). Monitoring Cerebral Oxygenation: Experimental Studies and Preliminary Clinical Results of Continuous Monitoring of Cerebrospinal Fluid and Brain Tissue Oxygen Tension. Acta Neurochir Suppl. doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-9302-0_9
  70. [klingelhofer1996]Klingelhöfer J et al. (1992). Doppler CO2 test as an indicator of cerebral vasoreactivity and prognosis in severe intracranial hemorrhages. Stroke;23(7):962–966. doi:10.1161/01.str.23.7.962
  71. [newell1992ccp]CNewell DW et al. (1992). The relationship of blood flow velocity fluctuations to intracranial pressure B waves. Journal of Neurosurgery;76(3):415-421. doi:10.3171/jns.1992.76.3.0415
  72. [cruz1992]Cruz J et al. (1991). Continuous monitoring of cerebral oxygenation in acute brain injury. Neurosurgery;20(11):1582–1589. doi:10.1097/00006123-199111000-00017
  73. [ungerstedt1991]BUngerstedt U (1991). Microdialysis, principles and applications for studies in animals and man. Journal of Internal Medicine;230(4):365–373. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.1991.tb00459.x
  74. [lindegaard1989]Lindegaard KF et al. (1989). Cerebral vasospasm diagnosis by means of angiography and blood velocity measurements. Acta Neurochirurgica;100(1-2):12–24. doi:10.1007/BF01405268
  75. [robertson1989sjvo2]CRobertson CS et al. (1989). Cerebral arteriovenous oxygen difference as an estimate of cerebral blood flow in comatose patients. J Neurosurg;70(2):222–230. doi:10.3171/jns.1989.70.2.0222
  76. [aaslid1989_autoreg]BAaslid R et al. (1989). Cerebral autoregulation dynamics in humans. Stroke;20(1):45-52. doi:10.1161/01.str.20.1.45
  77. [kontos1989]ExpertKontos HA (1989). Validity of cerebral arterial blood flow calculations from velocity measurements. Stroke;20(1):1-3. doi:10.1161/01.str.20.1.1
  78. [bode1988]Bode H (1988). Pediatric Applications of Transcranial Doppler Sonography. Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-8985-6
  79. [brown1985]Brown MM et al. (1985). Fundamental importance of arterial oxygen content in the regulation of cerebral blood flow in man. Brain;108:81–93. doi:10.1093/brain/108.1.81
  80. [cardoso1983]Cardoso ER et al. (1983). Analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid pulse wave in intracranial pressure. Journal of Neurosurgery;59(5):817–821. doi:10.3171/jns.1983.59.5.0817
  81. [aaslid1982]Aaslid R et al. (1982). Noninvasive transcranial Doppler ultrasound recording of flow velocity in basal cerebral arteries. Journal of Neurosurgery;57(6):769–774. doi:10.3171/jns.1982.57.6.0769
  82. [astrup1981penumbra]AAstrup J et al. (1981). Thresholds in cerebral ischemia - the ischemic penumbra. Stroke;12(6):723-725. doi:10.1161/01.str.12.6.723
  83. [avezaat1979]Avezaat CJJ et al. (1979). Cerebrospinal fluid pulse pressure and intracranial volume-pressure relationships. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry;42(8):687–700. doi:10.1136/jnnp.42.8.687
  84. [marmarou1975]Marmarou A et al. (1978). A nonlinear analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid system and intracranial pressure dynamics. Journal of Neurosurgery;48(3):332–344. doi:10.3171/jns.1978.48.3.0332
  85. [papile1978]BPapile LA et al. (1978). Incidence and evolution of subependymal and intraventricular hemorrhage: a study of infants with birth weights less than 1,500 gm. J Pediatr;92(4):529–534. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(78)80282-0
  86. [jobsis1977]Jöbsis FF (1977). Noninvasive infrared monitoring of cerebral and myocardial oxygen sufficiency and circulatory parameters. Science;198(4323):1264–1267. doi:10.1126/science.929199
  87. [teasdale1974]Teasdale G et al. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. Lancet;2(7872):81–84. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(74)91639-0
  88. [maynard1969]ExpertMaynard DE et al. (1969). Device for continuous monitoring of cerebral activity in resuscitated patients. BMJ;4(5682):545–546. doi:10.1136/bmj.4.5682.545-a
  89. [reivich1964]Reivich M (1964). Arterial Pco2 and cerebral hemodynamics. American Journal of Physiology;206:25–35. doi:10.1152/ajplegacy.1964.206.1.25
  90. [lundberg1960]Lundberg N (1960). Continuous recording and control of ventricular fluid pressure in neurosurgical practice. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica;36(Suppl 149):1–193.
  91. [lassen1959]Lassen NA (1959). Cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption in man. Physiological Reviews;39(2):183–238. doi:10.1152/physrev.1959.39.2.183
  92. [kety1948]Kety SS et al. (1948). The effects of altered arterial tensions of carbon dioxide and oxygen on cerebral blood flow and cerebral oxygen consumption of normal young men. Journal of Clinical Investigation;27(4):484–492. doi:10.1172/JCI101995
  93. [dawson1947]BDawson GD (1947). Cerebral responses to electrical stimulation of peripheral nerve in man. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry;10(3):134–140. doi:10.1136/jnnp.10.3.134
  94. [leao1944]BLeão AAP (1944). Spreading depression of activity in the cerebral cortex. J Neurophysiol;7(6):359–390. doi:10.1152/jn.1944.7.6.359
  95. [berger1929eeg]ExpertBerger H (1929). Über das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten;87:527-570. doi:10.1007/BF01797193
  96. [cushing1901]Cushing H (1901). Concerning a definite regulatory mechanism of the vasomotor centre which controls blood pressure during cerebral compression. Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital;12:290–292.
  97. [kellie1824]Kellie G (1824). An account of the appearances observed in the dissection of two of the three individuals presumed to have perished in the storm of the 3rd, and whose bodies were discovered in the vicinity of Leith on the morning of the 4th of November 1821. Transactions of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh;1:84–169.
  98. [monro1783]Monro A (1783). Observations on the structure and functions of the nervous system. Edinburgh: Creech & Johnson.

Consensus statements (30)

  1. [foreman2023_mmm_delphi]AForeman B et al. (2023). Practice standards for the use of multimodality neuromonitoring: a Delphi consensus process. Critical Care Medicine;51(12):1740-1753. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000006016
  2. [hoh2023sah_aha]ExpertHoh BL et al. (2023). Guideline for the management of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke;54(7):e314-e370. doi:10.1161/str.0000000000000449
  3. [hirsch2021]ExpertHirsch LJ et al. (2021). American Clinical Neurophysiology Society's Standardized Critical Care EEG Terminology: 2021 Version. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology;38(1):1–29. doi:10.1097/WNP.0000000000000806
  4. [pressler2017neonatal]ExpertPressler RM et al. (2021). The ILAE classification of seizures and the epilepsies: Modification for seizures in the neonate. Position paper by the ILAE Task Force on Neonatal Seizures. Epilepsia;62(3):615-628. doi:10.1111/epi.16815
  5. [pals2020]ExpertTopjian AA et al. (2020). Part 4: Pediatric basic and advanced life support: 2020 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation;142(16_suppl_2):S469–S523. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000901
  6. [greer2020_braindeath]ExpertGreer DM et al. (2020). Determination of Brain Death/Death by Neurologic Criteria. JAMA;324(11):1078-1097. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.11586
  7. [kochanek2019]ExpertKochanek PM et al. (2019). Management of pediatric severe traumatic brain injury: 2019 consensus and guidelines-based algorithm for first and second tier therapies. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;20(3):269–279. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000001737
  8. [kochanek2019_pbtf4]ExpertKochanek PM et al. (2019). Guidelines for the Management of Pediatric Severe Traumatic Brain Injury, Third Edition: Update of the Brain Trauma Foundation Guidelines, Executive Summary. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;20(3S):S1-S82. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000001736
  9. [topjian2021aha_pediatric]ExpertTopjian AA et al. (2019). Pediatric Post-Cardiac Arrest Care: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation;140(6):e194-e233. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000697
  10. [ferriero2019aha_pedstroke]ExpertFerriero DM et al. (2019). Management of Stroke in Neonates and Children: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke;50(3):e51-e96. doi:10.1161/STR.0000000000000183
  11. [dreier2017sd_cosbid]ExpertDreier JP et al. (2017). Recording, analysis, and interpretation of spreading depolarizations in neurointensive care: review and recommendations of the COSBID research group. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism;37(5):1595-1625. doi:10.1177/0271678X16654496
  12. [parikh2017_mito_consensus]ExpertParikh S et al. (2017). Patient care standards for primary mitochondrial disease: a consensus statement from the Mitochondrial Medicine Society. Genetics in Medicine;19(12):1380-1397. doi:10.1038/gim.2017.107
  13. [glauser2016_aes_guideline]ExpertGlauser T et al. (2016). Evidence-Based Guideline: Treatment of Convulsive Status Epilepticus in Children and Adults: Report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Currents;16(1):48-61. doi:10.5698/1535-7597-16.1.48
  14. [vandebeek2016eu_meningitis]Expertvan de Beek D et al. (2016). ESCMID guideline: diagnosis and treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection;22 Suppl 3:S37-S62. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2016.01.007
  15. [trinka2015_status_definition]ExpertTrinka E et al. (2015). A definition and classification of status epilepticus, Report of the ILAE Task Force. Epilepsia;56(10):1515–1523. doi:10.1111/epi.13121
  16. [herman2015acns_ceeg]ExpertHerman ST et al. (2015). Consensus statement on continuous EEG in critically ill adults and children, part I and II (ACNS). Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology;32(2-3):87-105 / 96-108. doi:10.1097/WNP.0000000000000165
  17. [hutchinson2015_md]ExpertHutchinson PJ et al. (2015). Consensus statement from the 2014 International Microdialysis Forum. Intensive Care Medicine;41(9):1517-1528. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-3930-y
  18. [czosnyka2014]ExpertCzosnyka M et al. (2014). Monitoring of cerebral autoregulation. Neurocritical Care;21(Suppl 2):S95–102. doi:10.1007/s12028-014-0046-0
  19. [leroux2014]ExpertLe Roux P et al. (2014). Consensus summary statement of the International Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring in Neurocritical Care. Neurocritical Care;21(Suppl 2):S1–26. doi:10.1007/s12028-014-0041-5
  20. [sandroni2014]BSandroni C et al. (2014). Prognostication in comatose survivors of cardiac arrest: An advisory statement from the European Resuscitation Council and the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Resuscitation;85(12):1779–1789. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.08.011
  21. [leroux2014_neurocrit_consensus]ExpertLe Roux P et al. (2014). Consensus summary statement of the international multidisciplinary consensus conference on multimodality monitoring in neurocritical care. Intensive Care Medicine;40(9):1189-1209. doi:10.1007/s00134-014-3369-6
  22. [claassen2013]ExpertClaassen J et al. (2013). Recommendations on the use of EEG monitoring in critically ill patients: consensus statement from the Neurointensive Care Section of the ESICM. Intensive Care Medicine;39(8):1337–1351. doi:10.1007/s00134-013-2938-4
  23. [tsuchida2013neonatal]ATsuchida TN et al. (2013). American Clinical Neurophysiology Society standardized EEG terminology and categorization for the description of continuous EEG monitoring in neonates. J Clin Neurophysiol;30(2):161–173. doi:10.1097/wnp.0b013e3182872b24
  24. [connolly2012_sah_aha]ExpertConnolly ES et al. (2012). Guidelines for the Management of Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Stroke;43(6):1711-1737. doi:10.1161/STR.0b013e3182587839
  25. [nuwer2012_ionm]ExpertNuwer MR et al. (2012). Evidence-based guideline update: Intraoperative spinal monitoring with somatosensory and transcranial electrical motor evoked potentials. Neurology;78(8):585–589. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318247fa0e
  26. [nakagawa2011peds_bd]ExpertNakagawa TA et al. (2011). Guidelines for the determination of brain death in infants and children: an update of the 1987 task force recommendations. Critical Care Medicine;39(9):2139-2155. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e31821f0d4f
  27. [tunkel2017idsa_encephalitis]ExpertTunkel AR et al. (2008). The management of encephalitis: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases;47(3):303-327. doi:10.1086/589747
  28. [wijdicks2006]ExpertWijdicks EFM et al. (2006). Practice parameter: prediction of outcome in comatose survivors after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (an evidence-based review). Neurology;67(2):203–210. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000227183.21314.cd
  29. [sloan2004]ExpertSloan MA et al. (2004). Assessment: Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. Neurology;62(9):1468–1481. doi:10.1212/wnl.62.9.1468
  30. [tunkel2004_idsa_meningitis]ExpertTunkel AR et al. (2004). Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis (IDSA). Clinical Infectious Diseases;39(9):1267–1284. doi:10.1086/425368

Pediatric-specific (47)

  1. [agrawal2026_starship]BAgrawal S et al. (2026). Intracranial Pressure Treatment Thresholds in Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Pediatrics;180(6):650-658. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2026.0197
  2. [lovett2022noninvasive]BLovett ME et al. (2024). A Review of Noninvasive Neuromonitoring Modalities in Children Part I: Pupillometry, Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, and Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography. Neurocritical Care;38(1):130-146. doi:10.1007/s12028-023-01730-4
  3. [kerscher2023]BKerscher SR et al. (2024). Transorbital point-of-care ultrasound versus fundoscopic papilledema to support treatment indication for potentially elevated intracranial pressure in children. Childs Nerv Syst. doi:10.1007/s00381-023-06186-7
  4. [larovere2018_pedsais]ExpertPoletto E et al. (2024). How to perform and interpret a middle cerebral artery transcranial Doppler examination in children at risk of brain injury. Archives of Disease in Childhood - Education and Practice;109(2):98-104. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2023-325747
  5. [krahulik2023]BKrahulik D et al. (2023). Sensitivity of Papilledema as a Sign of Increased Intracranial Pressure. Children (Basel);10(4):723. doi:10.3390/children10040723
  6. [svedungwettervik2023]BSvedung Wettervik T et al. (2023). ICP, PRx, CPP, and ΔCPPopt in pediatric traumatic brain injury: the combined effect of insult intensity and duration on outcome. Child's Nervous System;39(9):2459-2466. doi:10.1007/s00381-023-05982-5
  7. [jiang2023npipeds]CJiang J et al. (2023). Neurological Pupillary Index (NPi) Measurement Using Pupillometry and Outcomes in Critically Ill Children. Cureus;15(10):e46480. doi:10.7759/cureus.46480
  8. [smith2023cvrpeds]BSmith CA et al. (2023). Cerebrovascular Pressure Reactivity Has a Strong and Independent Association With Outcome in Children With Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. Critical Care Medicine;51(5):573-583. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000005815
  9. [velle2023cppoptpeds]BVelle F et al. (2023). Cerebral pressure autoregulation and optimal cerebral perfusion pressure during neurocritical care of children with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics;31(5):503-513. doi:10.3171/2023.1.PEDS22352
  10. [agrawal2023starship]SparseAgrawal S et al. (2023). Studying Trends of Auto-Regulation in Severe Head Injury in Paediatrics (STARSHIP): protocol to study cerebral autoregulation in a prospective multicentre observational research database study. BMJ Open;13(9):e071800. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-071800
  11. [figajimd]CThango NS et al. (2021). Brain interstitial glycerol correlates with evolving brain injury in paediatric traumatic brain injury. Child's Nervous System;37(5):1713–1721. doi:10.1007/s00381-021-05058-2
  12. [topjian2021mmm]BTopjian AA et al. (2021). Multimodal monitoring including early EEG improves stratification of brain injury severity after pediatric cardiac arrest. Resuscitation;167:282-288. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2021.06.020
  13. [joram2020_ecmo_cox]CJoram N et al. (2021). Continuous Monitoring of Cerebral Autoregulation in Children Supported by Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Pilot Study. Neurocritical Care;34(3):935–945. doi:10.1007/s12028-020-01111-1
  14. [robba2018peds]BRobba C et al. (2020). Ultrasound non-invasive intracranial pressure assessment in paediatric neurocritical care: a pilot study. Child's Nervous System;36(1):117–124. doi:10.1007/s00381-019-04235-8
  15. [kirschen2020_pedshie_tcd]CHunfeld M et al. (2020). A systematic review of neuromonitoring modalities in children beyond neonatal period after cardiac arrest. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;21(10):e927-e933. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000002415
  16. [freeman2020_pediatric_pupil]BFreeman AD et al. (2020). Automated Pupillary Measurements Inversely Correlate With Increased Intracranial Pressure in Pediatric Patients With Acute Brain Injury or Encephalopathy. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;21(8):753-759. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000002327
  17. [rhee2018_neonatal_autoreg]ExpertRhee CJ et al. (2018). Neonatal cerebrovascular autoregulation. Pediatric Research;84(5):602-610. doi:10.1038/s41390-018-0141-6
  18. [figaji2017_peds]ExpertFigaji AA (2017). Anatomical and physiological differences between children and adults relevant to traumatic brain injury and the implications for clinical assessment and care. Frontiers in Neurology;8:685. doi:10.3389/fneur.2017.00685
  19. [jamal2017four]BJamal A et al. (2017). Full Outline of UnResponsiveness score and the Glasgow Coma Scale in prediction of pediatric coma. World J Emerg Med;8(1):55–60. doi:10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2017.01.010
  20. [larovere2017_ecmo]CLaRovere KL et al. (2017). Patterns of Head Computed Tomography Abnormalities During Pediatric Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation and Association With Outcomes. Pediatric Neurology;73:64-70. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2017.05.006
  21. [padayachy2012]Padayachy LC et al. (2016). The relationship between transorbital ultrasound measurement of the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) and invasively measured ICP in children. Child's Nervous System;32(10):1779–1785. doi:10.1007/s00381-016-3068-4
  22. [tasker2018ceeg]BTasker RC et al. (2016). Refractory Status Epilepticus in Children: Intention to Treat With Continuous Infusions of Midazolam and Pentobarbital. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;17(10):968-975. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000000900
  23. [padayachy2016_pediatric_onsd]BPadayachy LC et al. (2016). The relationship between transorbital ultrasound measurement of the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) and invasively measured ICP in children. Childs Nervous System;32(10):1769-1778. doi:10.1007/s00381-016-3067-5
  24. [obrien2015]CO'Brien NF (2015). Reference values for cerebral blood flow velocities in critically ill, sedated children. Child's Nervous System;31(12):2269–2276. doi:10.1007/s00381-015-2873-5
  25. [rivkin2016_TIPS]BRivkin MJ et al. (2015). Thrombolysis in pediatric stroke study (TIPS). Stroke;46(3):880–885. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.008210
  26. [lewis2014peds]CLewis PM et al. (2015). Cerebrovascular pressure reactivity in children with traumatic brain injury. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;16(8):739–749. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000000471
  27. [larovere2022]ExpertLaRovere KL et al. (2015). Transcranial Doppler sonography in pediatric neurocritical care. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine;34(12):2121-2132. doi:10.7863/ultra.15.02016
  28. [allen2014cpp]BAllen BB et al. (2014). Age-Specific Cerebral Perfusion Pressure Thresholds and Survival in Children and Adolescents With Severe Traumatic Brain Injury*. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine;15(1):62–70. doi:10.1097/PCC.0b013e3182a556ea
  29. [abend2011]Abend NS et al. (2013). Electrographic seizures in pediatric ICU patients. Neurology;81(4):383–391. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31829c5cfe
  30. [adelson2014pbto2]CAdelson PD et al. (2013). Comparison of hypothermia and normothermia after severe traumatic brain injury in children (Cool Kids): a phase 3, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurology;12(6):546–553. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70077-2
  31. [brady2009]CBrady KM et al. (2010). Monitoring cerebral blood flow pressure autoregulation in pediatric patients during cardiac surgery. Stroke;41(9):1957–1962. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.575167
  32. [figaji2009_tcd_pi]BFigaji AA et al. (2009). Transcranial Doppler pulsatility index is not a reliable indicator of intracranial pressure in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Surgical Neurology;72(4):389-394. doi:10.1016/j.surneu.2009.02.012
  33. [cohen2009four]BCohen J (2009). Interrater reliability and predictive validity of the FOUR score coma scale in a pediatric population. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing;41(5):261–267. doi:10.1097/JNN.0b013e3181b2c766
  34. [figaji2009peds]CFigaji AA et al. (2009). Brain tissue oxygen tension monitoring in pediatric severe traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst;25(10):1325–1333. doi:10.1007/s00381-009-0822-x
  35. [davidson2005bis]CDavidson AJ (2007). Monitoring the anaesthetic depth in children, an update. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol;20(3):236–243. doi:10.1097/ACO.0b013e3280c60c66
  36. [narotam2009]Narotam PK et al. (2006). Cerebral oxygenation in major pediatric trauma: its relevance to trauma severity and outcome. Journal of Pediatric Surgery;41(3):505–513. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2005.11.069
  37. [toet2006nirs]CToet MC et al. (2006). Cerebral oxygenation and electrical activity after birth asphyxia: their relation to outcome. Pediatrics;117(2):333–339. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0987
  38. [malayeri2005]Malayeri AA et al. (2005). Sonographic evaluation of optic nerve diameter in children with raised intracranial pressure. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine;24(2):143–147. doi:10.7863/jum.2005.24.2.143
  39. [holmes2005]Holmes JF et al. (2005). Performance of the pediatric Glasgow coma scale in children with blunt head trauma. Academic Emergency Medicine;12(9):814–819. doi:10.1197/j.aem.2005.04.019
  40. [muir2004]CMuir AB et al. (2004). Cerebral Edema in Childhood Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care;27(7):1541–1546. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.7.1541
  41. [tolias2013peds]SparseTolias CM et al. (2002). Extracellular glutamate in the brains of children with severe head injuries: a pilot microdialysis study. Child's Nervous System;18(8):368-374.
  42. [glaser2001]BGlaser N et al. (2001). Risk factors for cerebral edema in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. NEJM;344(4):264–269. doi:10.1056/NEJM200101253440404
  43. [alnaqeeb1999]al Naqeeb N et al. (1999). Assessment of neonatal encephalopathy by amplitude-integrated electroencephalography. Pediatrics;103(6 Pt 1):1263–1271. doi:10.1542/peds.103.6.1263
  44. [tatman1997]Tatman A et al. (1997). Development of a modified paediatric coma scale in intensive care clinical practice. Archives of Disease in Childhood;77(6):519–521. doi:10.1136/adc.77.6.519
  45. [fisher1992]Fisher B et al. (1992). Hypertonic saline lowers raised intracranial pressure in children after head trauma. Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology;27(7):871–875. doi:10.1097/00008506-199201000-00002
  46. [gleason1989]Gleason CA et al. (1990). Effect of acute hypoxemia on brain blood flow and oxygen metabolism in immature fetal sheep. American Journal of Physiology;258:H1064-H1069. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.1990.258.4.H1064
  47. [bode1988peds]BBode H et al. (1988). Age-dependence of flow velocities in basal cerebral arteries. Arch Dis Child;63(6):606–611. doi:10.1136/adc.63.6.606

Recent (last 36 months) (19)

  1. [petrosino2025orange]APetrosino M et al. (2025). Neurological Pupil Index and Intracranial Hypertension in Patients With Acute Brain Injury. JAMA Neurology;82(2):176–184. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.4189
  2. [beqiri2024cogitate]BBeqiri E et al. (2025). Does Targeting CPP at CPPopt Actually Improve Cerebrovascular Reactivity? A Secondary Analysis of the COGiTATE Randomized Controlled Trial. Neurocritical Care;42(3):937-944. doi:10.1007/s12028-024-02168-y
  3. [frigieri2025_b4c]BFrigieri G et al. (2025). Clinical performance of the Brain4care system for noninvasive detection of intracranial hypertension. Neurocritical Care;43(2):628-635. doi:10.1007/s12028-025-02273-6
  4. [hunfeld2024mlqeeg]CHunfeld M et al. (2024). Prediction of Survival After Pediatric Cardiac Arrest Using Quantitative EEG and Machine Learning Techniques. Neurology;103(1):e209429. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000210043
  5. [hartings2024_sd_intervention]BHartings JA et al. (2023). Improving Neurotrauma by Depolarization Inhibition With Combination Therapy: A Phase 2 Randomized Feasibility Trial. Neurosurgery;93(4):924-931.
  6. [oddo2023orange]AOddo M et al. (2023). The Neurological Pupil index for outcome prognostication in people with acute brain injury (ORANGE): a prospective, observational, multicentre cohort study. Lancet Neurology;22(10):925–933. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(23)00271-5
  7. [rasmussen2023safeboosc]BRasmussen MIS et al. (2023). Cerebral oximetry monitoring versus usual care for extremely preterm infants: a study protocol for the 2-year follow-up of the SafeBoosC-III randomised clinical trial. Trials;24:653. doi:10.1186/s13063-023-07653-x
  8. [rasulo2022_arrest]BRasulo FA et al. (2022). Transcranial Doppler as a screening test to exclude intracranial hypertension in brain-injured patients: the IMPRESSIT-2 prospective multicenter international study. Critical Care;26(1):110. doi:10.1186/s13054-022-03978-2
  9. [demoraes2022_nicp]Bde Moraes FM et al. (2022). Waveform Morphology as a Surrogate for ICP Monitoring: A Comparison Between an Invasive and a Noninvasive Method. Neurocritical Care;37(1):219–227. doi:10.1007/s12028-022-01477-4
  10. [kazimierska2021]Kazimierska A et al. (2021). Compliance of the cerebrospinal space: comparison of three methods. Acta Neurochirurgica;163(7):1979–1989. doi:10.1007/s00701-021-04834-y
  11. [brasil2021]Brasil S et al. (2021). A Novel Noninvasive Technique for Intracranial Pressure Waveform Monitoring in Critical Care. Journal of Personalized Medicine;11(12):1302. doi:10.3390/jpm11121302
  12. [andrade2021]BAndrade RAP et al. (2021). A nanometer resolution wearable wireless medical device for non-invasive intracranial pressure monitoring. IEEE Sensors Journal;21(20):22270-22284. doi:10.1109/JSEN.2021.3090648
  13. [tas2022peds]CTas J et al. (2021). An Update on the COGiTATE Phase II Study: Feasibility and Safety of Targeting an Optimal Cerebral Perfusion Pressure as a Patient-Tailored Therapy in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplement;131:181-185. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59436-7_29
  14. [brasil2022_waveform]CBrasil S et al. (2021). Intracranial Compliance Assessed by Intracranial Pressure Pulse Waveform. Brain Sciences;11(8):971. doi:10.3390/brainsci11080971
  15. [sansevere2023]BSansevere AJ et al. (2020). EEG features of brain injury during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in children. Neurology;95(10):e1372–e1380. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000010188
  16. [tolonen2018]Tolonen A et al. (2018). Quantitative EEG parameters for prediction of outcome in severe traumatic brain injury: development study. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience;49(4):248–257. doi:10.1177/1550059417742232
  17. [amorim2022]AAmorim E et al. (2018). Estimating the False Positive Rate of Absent Somatosensory Evoked Potentials in Cardiac Arrest Prognostication. Critical Care Medicine;46(12):e1213–e1221. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000003436
  18. [bouzat2014_tcd]BBouzat P et al. (2016). Transcranial Doppler to predict neurologic outcome after mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. Anesthesiology;125(2):346-354. doi:10.1097/ALN.0000000000001165
  19. [highton2015cox]CHighton D et al. (2015). Monitoring cerebral autoregulation after brain injury. Anesthesia & Analgesia. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000000790

Trials (29)

  1. [hansen2023safeboosciii]AHansen ML et al. (2023). Cerebral oximetry monitoring in extremely preterm infants. NEJM;388(16):1501–1511. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2207554
  2. [bernard2025_boost3]ABernard F et al. (2022). Brain Oxygen Optimization in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury (BOOST-3): a multicentre, randomised, blinded-endpoint, comparative effectiveness study of brain tissue oxygen and intracranial pressure monitoring versus intracranial pressure alone. BMJ Open;12(3):e060188. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-060188
  3. [beqiri2024]ATas J et al. (2021). Targeting Autoregulation-Guided Cerebral Perfusion Pressure after Traumatic Brain Injury (COGiTATE): A Feasibility Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. Journal of Neurotrauma;38(20):2790-2800. doi:10.1089/neu.2021.0197
  4. [robba2021]BRobba C et al. (2021). Intracranial pressure monitoring in patients with acute brain injury in the intensive care unit (SYNAPSE-ICU): an international, prospective observational cohort study. Lancet Neurology;20(7):548–558. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(21)00138-1
  5. [dankiewicz2021ttm2]ADankiewicz J et al. (2021). Hypothermia versus normothermia after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. NEJM;384(24):2283–2294. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2100591
  6. [roberts2019]ACRASH-3 trial collaborators (2019). Effects of tranexamic acid on death, disability, vascular occlusive events and other morbidities in patients with acute traumatic brain injury (CRASH-3): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet;394(10210):1713–1723. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32233-0
  7. [beqiri2024_cogitate]SparseBeqiri E et al. (2019). Feasibility of individualised severe traumatic brain injury management using an automated assessment of optimal cerebral perfusion pressure: the COGiTATE phase II study protocol. BMJ Open;9(9):e030727. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030727
  8. [kapur2019esett]AKapur J et al. (2019). Randomized trial of three anticonvulsant medications for status epilepticus (ESETT). NEJM;381(22):2103-2113. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1905795
  9. [oddo2018]BOddo M et al. (2018). Quantitative versus standard pupillary light reflex for early prognostication in comatose cardiac arrest patients: an international prospective multicenter double-blinded study. Intensive Care Medicine;44(12):2102–2111. doi:10.1007/s00134-018-5448-6
  10. [kuppermann2018_pecarn_dka]AKuppermann N et al. (2018). Clinical trial of fluid infusion rates for pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis (PECARN FLUID). NEJM;378(24):2275-2287. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1716816
  11. [moler2017thapca]AMoler FW et al. (2017). Therapeutic hypothermia after in-hospital cardiac arrest in children. NEJM;376(4):318–329. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1610493
  12. [okonkwo2017_boost2]BOkonkwo DO et al. (2017). Brain Oxygen Optimization in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Phase-II: A Phase II Randomized Trial. Critical Care Medicine;45(11):1907-1914. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000002619
  13. [hutchinson2016]AHutchinson PJ et al. (2016). Trial of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic intracranial hypertension. New England Journal of Medicine;375(12):1119–1130. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1605215
  14. [legriel2016_hyber]ALegriel S et al. (2016). Hypothermia for neuroprotection in convulsive status epilepticus. NEJM;375(25):2457–2467. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1608193
  15. [ware2016twitch]AWare RE et al. (2016). Hydroxycarbamide versus chronic transfusion for maintenance of transcranial doppler flow velocities in children with sickle cell anaemia-TCD With Transfusions Changing to Hydroxyurea (TWiTCH): a multicentre, open-label, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. The Lancet;387(10019):661–670. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01041-7
  16. [hyttel2015]AHyttel-Sørensen S et al. (2015). Cerebral near infrared spectroscopy oximetry in extremely preterm infants: phase II randomised clinical trial. BMJ;350:g7635. doi:10.1136/bmj.g7635
  17. [moler2015thapca_oh]AMoler FW et al. (2015). Therapeutic hypothermia after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in children (THAPCA-OH). NEJM;372(20):1898-1908. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1411480
  18. [welch2015pedsrampart]BWelch RD et al. (2015). Intramuscular midazolam versus intravenous lorazepam for the prehospital treatment of status epilepticus in the pediatric population. Epilepsia;56(2):254-262. doi:10.1111/epi.12905
  19. [pressler2015nemo]BPressler RM et al. (2015). Bumetanide for the treatment of seizures in newborn babies with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (NEMO): an open-label, dose finding, and feasibility phase 1/2 trial. Lancet Neurology;14(5):469–477. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70303-5
  20. [whitlock2014]Whitlock EL et al. (2014). Postoperative delirium in a substudy of cardiothoracic surgical patients in the BAG-RECALL clinical trial. Anesthesia & Analgesia;118(4):809–817. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000000028
  21. [chesnut2012best]AChesnut RM et al. (2012). A trial of intracranial-pressure monitoring in traumatic brain injury. NEJM;367(26):2471-2481. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1207363
  22. [silbergleit2012rampart]ASilbergleit R et al. (2012). Intramuscular versus intravenous therapy for prehospital status epilepticus. New England Journal of Medicine;366(7):591-600. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1107494
  23. [cooper2011]ACooper DJ et al. (2011). Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. New England Journal of Medicine;364(16):1493–1502. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1102077
  24. [mckeever2014bis]AAvidan MS et al. (2011). Prevention of intraoperative awareness in a high-risk surgical population. NEJM;365(7):591–600. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1100403
  25. [adams2005_stop2]AAdams RJ et al. (2005). Discontinuing prophylactic transfusions used to prevent stroke in sickle cell disease. NEJM;353(26):2769–2778. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa050460
  26. [shankaran2005hie_nichd]AShankaran S et al. (2005). Whole-body hypothermia for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. NEJM;353(15):1574-1584. doi:10.1056/NEJMcps050929
  27. [degans2002]Ade Gans J et al. (2002). Dexamethasone in adults with bacterial meningitis. New England Journal of Medicine;347(20):1549–1556. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa021334
  28. [painter1999]BPainter MJ et al. (1999). Phenobarbital compared with phenytoin for the treatment of neonatal seizures. New England Journal of Medicine;341(7):485–489. doi:10.1056/NEJM199908123410704
  29. [adams1998_stop]AAdams RJ et al. (1998). Prevention of a first stroke by transfusions in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. NEJM;339(1):5–11. doi:10.1056/NEJM199807023390102

Reviews (52)

  1. [rajendran2024_onsd_peds]BRajendran G et al. (2024). Diagnostic Accuracy of Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter Using Ultrasonography for Raised Intracranial Pressure in Pediatric Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. World Neurosurgery;190:e1000-e1017. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2024.08.052
  2. [erklauer2024pedmmm]BErklauer JC et al. (2024). The State of the Field of Pediatric Multimodality Neuromonitoring. Neurocritical Care;40(3):1160-1170. doi:10.1007/s12028-023-01858-3
  3. [slovis2024postarrest]BSlovis JC et al. (2024). Neuromonitoring after Pediatric Cardiac Arrest: Cerebral Physiology and Injury Stratification. Neurocritical Care;40(1):99-115. doi:10.1007/s12028-023-01685-6
  4. [benedetti2023peds_qeeg]CBenedetti GM et al. (2023). Review of Noninvasive Neuromonitoring Modalities in Children II: EEG, qEEG. Neurocritical Care;39(3):618–638. doi:10.1007/s12028-023-01686-5
  5. [greisen2018]ExpertGreisen G (2022). Cerebral oximetry in preterm infants, to use or not to use, that is the question. Frontiers in Pediatrics;6:376. doi:10.3389/fped.2021.747660
  6. [laws2022pedmmm]BLaws JC et al. (2022). Multimodal Neurologic Monitoring in Children With Acute Brain Injury. Pediatric Neurology;129:62-71. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2022.01.006
  7. [rass2021dci_review]ExpertRass V et al. (2021). How to diagnose delayed cerebral ischaemia and symptomatic vasospasm and prevent cerebral infarction in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage. Current Opinion in Critical Care;27(2):103-114. doi:10.1097/mcc.0000000000000798
  8. [glaser2024_dka_review]ExpertAzova S et al. (2021). Brain injury in children with diabetic ketoacidosis: review of the literature and a proposed pathophysiologic pathway for the development of cerebral edema. Pediatric Diabetes;22(2):148-160. doi:10.1111/pedi.13152
  9. [sun2020_pediatric_thrombectomy]BSun LR et al. (2020). Mechanical Thrombectomy for Acute Ischemic Stroke. Stroke;51(10):3174-3181. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.029698
  10. [zaleski2020_chd_nirs]CZaleski KL et al. (2020). Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Pediatric Congenital Heart Disease. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia;34(2):489–500. doi:10.1053/j.jvca.2019.08.048
  11. [sansevere2023_neonatal_ceeg]CSansevere AJ et al. (2019). Seizure Prediction Models in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology;36(3):186–194. doi:10.1097/WNP.0000000000000574
  12. [donnelly2016]BDonnelly J et al. (2018). Pressure reactivity-based optimal cerebral perfusion pressure in a traumatic brain injury cohort. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplement;126:209–212. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65798-1_43
  13. [pinsky2002]Pinsky MR (2018). Cardiopulmonary interactions: physiologic basis and clinical applications. Annals of the American Thoracic Society;15(Suppl 1):S45–S48. doi:10.1513/AnnalsATS.201704-339FR
  14. [mastantuono2018_tcd]AMastantuono JM et al. (2018). Transcranial Doppler in the diagnosis of cerebral vasospasm: an updated meta-analysis. Critical Care Medicine;46(10):1665-1672. doi:10.1097/ccm.0000000000003297
  15. [robba2018_onsd_review]ARobba C et al. (2018). Optic nerve sheath diameter measured sonographically as non-invasive estimator of intracranial pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Medicine;44(8):1284-1294. doi:10.1007/s00134-018-5305-7
  16. [vinciguerra2022_tcd]ExpertVinciguerra L et al. (2017). Noninvasive neuromonitoring: current utility in subarachnoid hemorrhage, traumatic brain injury, and stroke. Neurocritical Care;27(1):122-140. doi:10.1007/s12028-016-0361-8
  17. [rivera-lara2017autoreg]ExpertRivera-Lara L et al. (2017). Cerebral Autoregulation-oriented Therapy at the Bedside. Anesthesiology;126(6):1187-1199. doi:10.1097/ALN.0000000000001625
  18. [lorusso2017_elso_neuro]ExpertLorusso R et al. (2017). Brain monitoring in adult and pediatric ECMO patients: the importance of early and late assessments. Minerva Anestesiologica;83(10):1061-1074. doi:10.23736/s0375-9393.17.11911-5
  19. [reith2016gcsreliability]AReith FCM et al. (2016). The reliability of the Glasgow Coma Scale: a systematic review. Intensive Care Medicine;42(1):3–15. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-4124-3
  20. [robba2017nicp]BRobba C et al. (2016). Non-invasive assessment of intracranial pressure. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica;134(1):4–21. doi:10.1111/ane.12527
  21. [topcuoglu2017_vasospasm]BKumar G et al. (2016). Vasospasm on transcranial Doppler is predictive of delayed cerebral ischemia in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Neurosurgery;124(5):1257-1264. doi:10.3171/2015.4.JNS15428
  22. [cardim2016_nicp_review]ExpertCardim D et al. (2016). Non-invasive monitoring of intracranial pressure using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography: is it possible?. Neurocritical Care;25:473-491. doi:10.1007/s12028-016-0258-6
  23. [kondziella2017]Kondziella D et al. (2015). Continuous EEG monitoring in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review. Neurocritical Care;22(3):450–461. doi:10.1007/s12028-014-0068-7
  24. [cohen2015]Cohen L et al. (2015). The Effect of Ketamine on Intracranial and Cerebral Perfusion Pressure and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review. Annals of Emergency Medicine;65(1):43–51. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2014.06.018
  25. [davies2017nirs]ExpertDavies DJ et al. (2015). Near-infrared spectroscopy in the monitoring of adult traumatic brain injury: a review. Journal of Neurotrauma;32(13):933-941. doi:10.1089/neu.2014.3748
  26. [helbok2018]Helbok R et al. (2014). Intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure monitoring in non-TBI patients. Neurocritical Care;21(Suppl 2):S85–94. doi:10.1007/s12028-014-0040-6
  27. [oddo2017]Oddo M et al. (2014). Monitoring of Brain and Systemic Oxygenation in Neurocritical Care Patients. Neurocritical Care;21(Suppl 2):S103–120. doi:10.1007/s12028-014-0024-6
  28. [teasdale2014]Teasdale G et al. (2014). The Glasgow Coma Scale at 40 years: standing the test of time. Lancet Neurology;13(8):844–854. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70120-6
  29. [hawthorne2014icp]ExpertHawthorne C et al. (2014). Monitoring of intracranial pressure in patients with traumatic brain injury. Frontiers in Neurology;5:121. doi:10.3389/fneur.2014.00121
  30. [childs2014]Childs C et al. (2013). Clinical review: brain-body temperature differences in adults with severe traumatic brain injury. Critical Care;17(2):222. doi:10.1186/cc11892
  31. [purkayastha2012_tcd]ExpertPurkayastha S et al. (2013). Transcranial Doppler ultrasound: technique and application. Seminars in Neurology;32(4):411-420. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1331812
  32. [bathala2013_tcd]ExpertBathala L et al. (2013). Transcranial doppler. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology;16(2-4). doi:10.4103/0972-2327.112460
  33. [foreman2012]Foreman B et al. (2012). Quantitative EEG for the detection of brain ischemia. Critical Care;16(2):216. doi:10.1186/cc11230
  34. [mortazavi2012]Mortazavi MM et al. (2012). Hypertonic saline for treating raised intracranial pressure: literature review with meta-analysis. Journal of Neurosurgery;116(1):210–221. doi:10.3171/2011.7.JNS102142
  35. [lauritzen2011]Lauritzen M et al. (2011). Clinical relevance of cortical spreading depression in neurological disorders: migraine, malignant stroke, subarachnoid and intracranial hemorrhage, and traumatic brain injury. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism;31(1):17–35. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2010.191
  36. [kornbluth2011_coma]CKornbluth J et al. (2011). Evaluation of Coma: A Critical Appraisal of Popular Scoring Systems. Neurocritical Care;14(1):134–143. doi:10.1007/s12028-010-9409-3
  37. [brouwer2010_dexamethasone_meta]ABrouwer MC et al. (2010). Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004405.pub3
  38. [polderman2009]Polderman KH (2009). Mechanisms of action, physiological effects, and complications of hypothermia. Critical Care Medicine;37(7 Suppl):S186–202. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181aa5241
  39. [rasulo2008]Rasulo FA et al. (2008). Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography in intensive care. European Journal of Anaesthesiology Supplement;25:167–173. doi:10.1017/S0265021507003341
  40. [eide2006]Eide PK (2006). A new method for processing of continuous intracranial pressure signals. Medical Engineering & Physics;28(6):579–587. doi:10.1016/j.medengphy.2005.09.008
  41. [drover2018]Drover D et al. (2006). Patient State Index. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology;20(1):121–128. doi:10.1016/j.bpa.2005.07.008
  42. [tisdall2006]Tisdall MM et al. (2006). Cerebral microdialysis: research technique or clinical tool?. British Journal of Anaesthesia;97(1):18–25. doi:10.1093/bja/ael109
  43. [fodstad2006]Fodstad H et al. (2006). History of the Cushing reflex. Neurosurgery;59(5):1132–1137. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000245582.08532.7C
  44. [hillered2005]Hillered L et al. (2005). Translational neurochemical research in acute human brain injury: the current status and potential future for cerebral microdialysis. Journal of Neurotrauma;22(1):3–41. doi:10.1089/neu.2005.22.3
  45. [carter2006]Carter BG et al. (2005). Are somatosensory evoked potentials the best predictor of outcome after severe brain injury? A systematic review. Intensive Care Medicine;31(6):765–775. doi:10.1007/s00134-005-2633-1
  46. [czosnyka2004]BCzosnyka M et al. (2004). Monitoring and interpretation of intracranial pressure. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry;75(6):813–821. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.033126
  47. [bernard2003]Bernard SA et al. (2003). Induced hypothermia in critical care medicine: a review. Critical Care Medicine;31(7):2041–2051. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000069731.18472.61
  48. [mokri2001]Mokri B (2001). The Monro-Kellie hypothesis. Neurology;56(12):1746–1748. doi:10.1212/wnl.56.12.1746
  49. [macmillan2000]Macmillan CSA et al. (2000). Cerebrovenous oxygen saturation monitoring: practical considerations and clinical relevance. Intensive Care Medicine;26(8):1028–1036. doi:10.1007/s001340051315
  50. [marion2002]ExpertMarion DW et al. (2000). Changes in the management of severe traumatic brain injury: 1991–1997. Critical Care Medicine;28(1):16–18. doi:10.1097/00003246-200001000-00003
  51. [madsen2000]Madsen PL et al. (1999). Near-infrared oximetry of the brain. Progress in Neurobiology;58(6):541–560. doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(98)00093-8
  52. [brian1998]Brian JE Jr (1998). Carbon dioxide and the cerebral circulation. Anesthesiology;88(5):1365–1386. doi:10.1097/00000542-199805000-00029